Economic and Social life, Education and Religious Belief (800-1200)

 Trade and Commerce

• India's Trade with foreign -
  
• Arabs expanded trade with India, Southeast Asia and China. 
• India imported gold and silver from Arabs in return for other merchandise. 
• Indian merchants, philosophers, medical men, and craftsmen visited Baghdad and other Muslim towns in west Asia. 
• South Indian kingdoms had trade with southeast Asian countries and China.
• People had geographical knowledge in the period. This is evident from contemporary books such as Brihatkatha-kosh by Harisena.  
• Indian merchants were organized in guilds or shrenis or sanghs (people belonging to different castes having their own rules of conduct which the members were legally bound to obey, and were entitled to lend or borrow money or receive endowments), the most famous of them being Manigraman and the Nandesi. 
• These guilds were engaged in retail as well as wholesale trade within or outside the country.
• They gave handsome grants to temples and advanced money for trade. 
• These guilds settled abroad and took local wives.
• These rich guilds were followed by priests, which in turn spread Indian religions such as the Buddhism and the Hinduism to those countries. 
• The Buddhist temple Borobudur in Java, and the Hindu temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia testify the spread of these religions.

Hindu Temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia

The Buddhist temple Borobudur, Java

• Port played important roles -
  
• The chief Indian port for sailing to Java, Sumatra, etc was Tamralipti (Tamluk) in Bengal. 
• From this port, merchants used to sail to Indonesia, Malaysia, etc.
  

• China was the main focus of trade -
  
• Trade items that were exported to China included spices, ivory, glassware, lac, incense, medical herbs, etc.
• Tamil country and Kalinga (modern Odisha and Bengal) played an active role in this trade.
• India's Malabar functioned as a bridge of trade between China and Africa countries and also the Middle-east as they could not directly sail to each other due to the large oceans.
• Indian Buddhist scholars traveled by sea route to China.
• Chola ruler Rajendra-I sent naval expeditions to Malay in order to clear sea route interference to China. 
• Many shipyards were located in the west coast of India, Gujarat being one of them.
  

• Expansion Agriculture -
  
• Many kingdoms in the period focused on building bunds, wells, etc in expand agriculture.
• Brahmans were granted rent-free lands.
• Many tribesmen like cattle rears, nomads, etc were invited to settle down in uncultivated lands so that these lands could produce state revenue.

Condition of the people

• King-like life styles of ministers, officials and feudal chiefs
• They aped ways of kings. For instance - 
• 3 to 5-storeys houses
• foreign apparel such as imported woolen clothes
  
• Chinese silk
• costly jewels and ornaments made of gold and silver to adorn their bodies.
• large number of women and attendants at households.
• a large number of attendants accompanied when they move out.
• assumed high-sounding titles such as mahasamantadhipati. 

• Society contained both rich and poor people
• Urban societies contained rich people who afforded to eat fried meat and drink cooled wine perfumed with flowers.
• People of countryside struggled for rice and utpala-saka (a wild vegetable of bitter taste). There were even involved in robbery and plunder. 

• Plight of peasants
  
• 1/6th revenue tax of total produce levied from peasants.
•  Various taxes - grazing tax, tax on ponds, etc.
•  Peasant rendered in forced labour (vishti).
• Cultivators were tied to the soil like serfs in the Medieval Europe.  
• Growth of feudal was on rise that increased the burden of common people.
• Brahmans were given rent-free lands 

Nature of Society 

• Growing power of a class of people variously called samanta, ranak, rautta (rajput) etc.
• Kingdoms had large areas dominated by defeated and subordinated rulers.
• under these rulers many lands were controlled by fiefs.
• various government offices were hereditary. For example, in Bengal, members of a family held the office of mahamantri for four generations.
• Power of hereditary chiefs strengthened.
• beyond collecting revenue, they started assuming many functions of the government, such as, awarding punishments, etc.

The Caste System

(1. Brahmans and Rajputas)

The Brahmans and the Rajputas were dominant classes in the period. These two classes were ruled the society in harmony with each other. This period saw important changes in caste systems.

• Brahmans were highly privileged
  
• They were given rent-free lands.
• They acted as local revenue officials, ministers, accountants, etc.
• They were highly privileged (dvija) in the society. Other existing class such as Vaishyas sunk to the position of Shudras.

• Rise of Rajputas
• A large number of states were being ruled by Rajputas.
• They were regarded to be the leaders of clans which dominated certain tracts of land.
• They were accorded the status of Kshatriyas.
• Apart from Brahmans, Rajaputas encroached the lands of local tribes and settled there. This is what we call Rajputization. 
• They were warriors as well as cultivators.
• They were the champions of the newly expansionist Hinduism. They absorbed to a great extent other castes such as the Buddhists and the Jains within its fold.
  
• They built grand temples and Brahmans were employed as priests who were given gift, grants, rent-free lands, ans so on.

2. Shudra, Dalits and Slaves 

• Gradual elevation of social position of Shudras -
• They were allowed for smarta rituals, like birth, death, name giving etc., though still not allowed to study the Vedas.
• Agriculture in this period uplifted many tribes from the fold of Shudras.
  
• Jats, who were included in Shudras earlier, began to be treated at par with Rajputas. They were agriculturists cum warriors.
  

• Marriage systems - Anulom and Pratilom
  

• anulom - 
• marriage of a man of higher caste with the woman of lower caste was called anulom (according to norms).
• pratilom - 
• marriage of man of lower caste with a woman of higher caste was called pratilom (against the norms). 

    The origins of new castes which often consisted of professional groups such as potters, weavers, barbers, etc. were attributed to these mixed marriages. 

• Position of the Dalits
• Theirs included professions such as scavenging, skinning dead animals, shoe makers, hunters etc.
• They were called antyaja or untouchables and formed the fifth social grade outside the four-fold varna system.
• They were not allowed to inhibit in areas where upper caste people lived.
• They required to ring bells etc, where they walked to warn lest other came in contact with them.
• Their shadows were also thought to be polluting. 
• They sold themselves, their wives or children for food in times of famine as slavery existed in the period.

Condition of Women

• Condition of ordinary Women 
• They were considered mentally inferior
• There were treated at par with servants and were expected to obey their husbands blindly. And men were expected to be kind towards their wives.
  
• They were not allowed to study the Vedas.
• Their marriageable age was lower, at the age of 6 or 8 or before attaining puberty.
• Remarriage was conditional (death, recluses of husband etc.).
• They had respectful lives at home. Widow was entitled right to inherit property on husband's death. On the death of the widow, her daughter was transferred the ownership of property.
• Sati was practiced. 
• Upper caste women were not brought out in public gaze although purdah system was not in vogue.
  

• Conditions of women in courts
• Their conditions were at par with scholars.
• Even queen's maids were capable to compose Sanskrit and Prakrit verses. 
• Princess were skilled in the fine arts, especially in painting and music.
• Some women in court ruled as queens. For example, Prabhavati Gupta of the Vakataka dynasty ruled in Orissa for 13 years as the mother of yuvaraja. Queen Didda ruled for 50 year in Kashmir. 

Dress, Food and Amusement

Dress - 

• Dhoti was used by men and sari used by women.
• In north India - men used jacket and women used bodice (choli) in winter.
• Material of cotton was used by upper caste people.
• Both men and women wore golden bracelets and earring, sometimes set with costly stones. 
• Loin cloth was dressed by both men and women in Quilon.
• 
  

Food - 

• Vegetarianism was the rule, but, non-veg was also allowed. Peacock, horse, wild ass, wild cock, and the wild pig were regarded lawful food.
• Wine drinking in lower castes was common, and in upper caste rare. Brahmans perhaps were not involved.
  

Amusement:- 

Modes of amusement were - 

• fairs and festivals
• excursions to gardens
• swimming parties
• animal fights such as rams, cocks etc.
• dancing, hunting, and a kind of Indian polo in upper castes.
• 
  

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